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Article History

Received: 12 May 2025

Revised: 30 July 2025

Accepted: 5 September 2025

First Online: 2 December 2025

Declarations

:

: The authors declare that no commercial or financial relationships exist that could be perceived as potential conflicts of interest in relation to this study.

: All animal experiments were approved by the Ethics Committee of the Laboratory Animal Center at West China Second University Hospital, Sichuan University (Approval No. 2022-050), and conducted in accordance with the guidelines set forth by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) of Peking University for animal welfare and experimental standards.

: Normal human testicular and epididymal tissue paraffin sections were obtained from Renji Hospital, affiliated with Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, with ethical approval granted by the hospital’s Ethics Committee (Approval No. KY2020-193). Human sperm samples were sourced from the Human Sperm Bank at West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University. All participants provided informed consent, and the study was approved by the Medical Research Ethics Committee of West China Second Hospital, Sichuan University (Approval No. 2019-050, 2023 − 231).

: Prior informed consent for participation and publication have been obtained from all individuals included in the study.