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Article History

Received: 28 May 2024

Accepted: 28 October 2024

First Online: 2 December 2024

Data availability

: The data are not openly available because they contain sensitive personal information relating to the participants that cannot be completely anonymised. However, the analytical code used for the current study can be made available on reasonable request, and the data are open for potential research collaboration by contacting the corresponding author.

: Open access funding provided by University of Eastern Finland (including Kuopio University Hospital). This study was supported by funding from the Academy of Finland (#137826), University of Eastern Finland, Juho Vainio Foundation, Medicinska Understödsföreningen Liv och Hälsa, Finnish Foundation for Cardiovascular Research, Finnish Diabetes Research Foundation and Finnish Cultural Foundation. The study funders were not involved in the design of the study, the collection, analysis and interpretation of data or writing of the report, and did not impose any restrictions regarding the publication of the report. The authors are solely responsible for the design and conduct of this study, all study analyses, the drafting and editing of the paper and its final contents.

: JKV reports receiving travel support to attend vitamin D research meetings from Abiogen Pharma. CL-A reports involvement in the Nordic Nutrition Recommendations 2023 as a member of the Systematic Review Centre, and in European Food Safety Authority procurement and preparatory work for the 2023 update of the tolerable upper intake levels for vitamin D. JEM reports receiving grants from the National Institutes of Health during the conduct of the study, and grants from the National Institutes of Health and from Mars Edge outside the submitted work. MU reports receiving a grant from Orion outside the submitted work. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: JKV, SH and T-PT designed the research with help from CL-A, JEM, TN and MU. JKV, SH, NK, TN, JP and T-PT conducted the research. JKV and AV carried out the statistical analysis and had full access to all the data and take responsibility for the integrity of the work as a whole and the accuracy of the data analysis. JKV drafted the manuscript. All authors interpreted the study results and provided critical revision of the manuscript for important intellectual content and approved the final manuscript.