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Article History

Received: 15 April 2024

Accepted: 29 October 2024

First Online: 8 January 2025

Acknowledgements

: The authors thank the participants and staff of the NHS, NHSII and HPFS for their valuable contributions. Some of the data were presented as an abstract at the American Heart Association's Epidemiology and Prevention/Lifestyle and Cardiometabolic Health 2023 Scientific Sessions.

: The datasets analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on request.

: The research reported in this manuscript was supported by National Institutes of Health grants UM1 CA186107, U01 CA167552 and U01 CA176726. Additionally, this work was supported by grant T32 DK007703-26 (LSP), K01HL169414 (LSP) from the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute and K01 DK136968 (DEH) from the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases. Other funding sources include R01DK125803 (DKT), R01DK131753 (SNB), R01DK120560 (SNB) and R01DK125273 (CBE) from the National Institutes of Health, the Thrasher Research Fund (CBE), the New Balance Foundation (CBE), the Arnold Ventures (CBE) and Dairy Farmers of Canada (J-PD-C), and the Novo Nordisk Foundation grant NNF18CC0034900 (MG-F).

: LSP has been supported by grants T32 DK007703-26 from the NIH; DKT has been supported by grant R01DK125803 from the NIH and is currently a member of the 2025 US Dietary Guidelines Scientific Advisory Committee, reviewing beverages and cardiovascular disease; SNB has been supported by grants R01DK131753 and R01DK120560 from the NIH and discloses a pending patent entitled ‘system and methods for conducting nutritional health risk assessments and adapting risk analyses based on actual health outcomes’ (provisional application filed on 20 May 2022; US Application No. 63/344,293); WCW is part of the EAT Foundation Advisory Board (unpaid position) and receives royalties for the textbook Nutritional Epidemiology, Oxford University Press; DSL discloses royalties for a book that recommends a carbohydrate-modified diet; CBE has been supported by grant R01DK125273 from the NIH, as well as grants from the Thrasher Research Fund, New Balance Foundation, and Arnold Ventures, and honoraria from the Columbia Cornell Obesity course and the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences (speaker); J-PD-C has been supported by grants and received payments (research grant review committee) from the Dairy Farmers of Canada. MG-F is supported by a Novo Nordisk Foundation grant NNF18CC0034900. MG-F is the PI of a grant from the International Nut Council (INC). All other authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: LSP formulated the study question and design, performed the statistical analyses, interpreted the results and wrote the complete first draft of the manuscript. DKT, YL, SNB, DEH, J-PD-C, DSL, CBE and WCW revised and edited the manuscript and made substantial contributions to the interpretation of data. FBH and MG-F formulated the study question and design, interpreted the results and edited the manuscript. FBH and WCW obtained funding. YL assisted in statistical analyses and interpretation of data. All authors participated in critical revision of the manuscript and approved the final version of the manuscript. The corresponding author (LSP) and senior author (MG-F) take full responsibility for the work and/or the conduct of the study, had access to the data and controlled the decision to publish.