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Article History

Received: 21 November 2024

Accepted: 27 May 2025

First Online: 12 July 2025

Acknowledgements

: We thank the KU Leuven Flow and Mass Cytometry core facility (Leuven, Belgium) and the VUB VSTA core facility (Brussels, Belgium). Some of the data were presented as an oral presentation by P-JM at the 60th Meeting of the EASD in September 2024, and as a poster presentation by P-JM at the 20th Meeting of the Immunology of Diabetes Society (IDS) in November 2024.

: Data supporting the results from this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

: This work was funded by the Innovative Medicine Initiative 2 Joint Undertaking (IMI2 JU) under grant agreement no. 115797 (INNODIA [Innovative approach towards understanding and arresting type 1 diabetes]). This Joint Undertaking received support from the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme and EFPIA, Breakthrough T1D (formerly known as JDRF) and The Leona M. and Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust. This work was supported by grants from the KU Leuven C1 funding (C1/18/006 and C16/24/012) and a small research infrastructure grant (KA/20/077). WS holds a Research Foundation Flanders (FWO) senior clinical investigator grant (1.8064.21N) and a Breakthrough T1D Career Development Award (CDA-2024-1491-S-B).

: CM serves or has served on the advisory panels for AstraZeneca, Avotres, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli Lilly and Company, Imcyse, Insulet, Mannkind, Medtronic, Merck Sharp and Dohme Ltd, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Precigen Actobio, Roche, Sandoz, Sanofi, Vertex Pharmaceuticals and Zealand Pharma. Financial compensation for these activities has been received by KU Leuven. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: CG designed the study. P-JM, LD and CG wrote the initial draft of the manuscript. P-JM, LD and MV performed mouse treatments and follow-up. YH performed RNA-scope staining. GL performed histological analyses. NG developed mATG to deplete T cells in vivo, enabling precise modulation of the immune system, and provided feedback on the manuscript. NDL and WS provided the necessary expertise to interpret the histological analyses and provided critical feedback on the manuscript. All authors critically improved the manuscript. CM and CG conceptualised the research goals, acquired major funding and discussed the data. CM and CG are the guarantors of this work and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. All authors approved the final version of this manuscript.