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Article History

Received: 20 March 2025

Accepted: 18 June 2025

First Online: 9 September 2025

Acknowledgements

: The authors specially thank B. Finan (Novo Nordisk Research Center Indianapolis, USA) and R. DiMarchi (Indiana University Bloomington, USA) for helpful discussion. The authors also thank A.-M. Postu (Bioinformatic, Munich, Germany) for the algorithms required for the data evaluation. We are also grateful for the technical assistance provided by fellow students T. Gentz and E. Cruz (MSc students, LMU Munich, Germany).

: All data will be shared by the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

: Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. NK and TG were supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (German Research Foundation, DFG), — Project-ID 239283807 — TRR-152 (P23, P15). TDM received research funding from the German Research Foundation (DFG) within TRR-152 (P23) and TRR-296 and the German Center for Diabetes Research (DZD), and the European Union (ERC CoG) TRUSTED 101044445. ABeck was supported by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) CRC 894 Project A14 and Forschungsausschuss der Universität des Saarlandes. ANeuberger is supported by the Elite Network of Bavaria, Bavarian State Ministry of Science and the Arts (Elitenetzwerk Bayern, Bayerisches Staatsministerium für Wissenschaft und Kunst). ANeuberger is also supported by WiFoMed (Verein zur Förderung von Wissenschaft und Forschung an der Medizinischen Fakultät der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München e.V.).

: TDM receives funding from Novo Nordisk and has received speaking fees from Novo Nordisk, Eli Lilly, Boehringer Ingelheim, Merck, AstraZeneca, Mercodia and Berlin Chemie AG. TDM further holds stocks from Novo Nordisk and Eli Lilly. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: PCFS, PB, SB, ABeck, ABreit and ACS conducted experiments, analysed and interpreted data and edited the manuscript. PSR, ANovikoff, ANeuberger, TDM and IB interpreted data and edited the manuscript. TG directed the project, interpreted data and edited the manuscript. NK directed the project, designed and conducted experiments, analysed and interpreted data, prepared figures and wrote the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript. NK is responsible for the integrity of the work as a whole.