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Article History

Received: 3 March 2025

Accepted: 15 July 2025

First Online: 25 September 2025

Data availability

: Datasets are available by request from the corresponding author. Supplementary data are published as tables and figures. Some of the data were presented as an abstract and oral presentation at the 60th EASD Annual Meeting in 2024.

: This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health grant R01 DK123163 to MSR, the Diabetes Models Phenotyping Core and the Metabolic Tissue Function Core, the Diabetes Research Center grant NIH-P30 DK020579 and the Nutrition Obesity Research Center grant NIH-P30 DK56341 at Washington University in St Louis. The study sponsor/funder was not involved in the design of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing the report; and did not impose any restrictions regarding the publication of the report.

: The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: MSR, EC and ZAS conceptualised the study. EC, ZAS, ZY, IR-S, SXC, AD and MSR performed experiments, data analysis and interpretation, and critically reviewed the article. EC and MSR wrote the manuscript. MSR and AD edited the manuscript. All authors have read and approved the final version of the manuscript. MSR is the guarantor of this work and had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity and accuracy of the data analysis.