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Article History

Received: 26 February 2025

Accepted: 15 July 2025

First Online: 11 October 2025

Acknowledgements

: The authors thank M. Ballhausen, F. Bruckner, J. Christensen, M. Gekle, P. Japtok, J. Kiefer, J. Kursiefen, K. Petrova, A. Roth, Y. Schmitter, N. Schoule, L. Schunicht and C. Werning (Department of Psychiatry, Psychosomatic Medicine and Psychotherapy, University Hospital, Goethe University) for their contribution to data collection as part of the mPRIME study.

: The data presented in this study are available on Zenodo ( ).

: Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL. This work was supported by the European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no. 847879, the Hessian Ministry of Science and Arts (HMWK) LOEWE programme (LOEWE Centre DYNAMIC) and the Joint Transnational Call for Proposals (JTC) 2022 on ‘Prevention in Personalised Medicine’ within the framework of ERA PerMed, ERAPERMED2022-087 – BIPCOM. SET was funded by the Leistungszentrum Innovative Therapeutics (TheraNova), the Fraunhofer Society, the Hessian Ministry of Science and Art and the Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung (BMBF, Federal Ministry of Education) – 01EO2102 INITIALISE Advanced Clinician Scientist Programme and the Reiss Foundation. Abbott Diabetes Care (Alameda, CA, USA) donated devices for the mPRIME study. The funding sources had no involvement in the study design, data collection, interpretation of the findings or writing of this manuscript.

: The authors declare no conflicts of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of data; in the writing of the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.

: ES, JRG, SET, and SM made substantial contributions to the conception and design of the work; the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data; drafting the article and revising it critically for important intellectual content; and gave final approval of the version to be published. JRG, CS, A Ruf, RG, SET, A Reif, and SM made substantial contributions to the interpretation of data, participated in the discussion of the findings, and reviewed and edited the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript. SM is the guarantor of this work and, as such, had full access to all of the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.