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Article History

Received: 12 March 2025

Accepted: 16 July 2025

First Online: 18 October 2025

Acknowledgements

: ND is supported by the Deakin University Postgraduate Research scholarship. This manuscript was prepared using ARIC Research Materials obtained from the NHLBI Biologic Specimen and Data Repository Information Coordinating Centre (BioLINCC) and does not necessarily reflect the opinions or views of the ARIC study or the NHLBI. GDM is supported by NHMRC Investigator grant (APP2009577). The authors would like to thank the Australian Diabetes, Obesity and Lifestyle (AusDiab) study Steering Committee for providing data from the AusDiab study (Baseline, 2005 and 2012 follow-ups). The authors would also like to thank the other investigators, the staff, and the participants of MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis) for their valuable contributions. A full list of participating MESA investigators and institutions can be found at . This paper has been reviewed and approved by the MESA Publications and Presentations Committee. This manuscript has been reviewed by the Jackson Heart Study (JHS) for scientific content. JHS disclaimer: The views expressed in this manuscript are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the views of the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute; the National Institutes of Health; or the US Department of Health and Human Services. Part of the findings were presented as a poster at the Barwon Health Research Symposium meeting in 2024.

: De-identified individual participant data that underlie the findings reported in this manuscript will not be publicly available due to data governance agreements with the original cohort custodians. However, access to the data may be granted upon reasonable request for methodologically sound proposals and subject to approval by the ODCDC Steering Committee and the respective cohort governance committees. Researchers wishing to request data access should contact the corresponding author (n.davoodian@deakin.edu.au) with a detailed proposal outlining the research objectives, methods and planned use of the data.

: Open Access funding enabled and organized by CAUL and its Member Institutions. The MESA study was supported by contracts 75N92020D00001, HHSN268201500003I, N01-HC-95159, 75N92020D00005, N01-HC-95160, 75N92020D00002, N01-HC-95161, 75N92020D00003, N01-HC-95162, 75N92020D00006, N01-HC-95163, 75N92020D00004, N01-HC-95164, 75N92020D00007, N01-HC-95165, N01-HC-95166, N01-HC-95167, N01-HC-95168 and N01-HC-95169 from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute, and by grants UL1-TR-000040, UL1-TR-001079, and UL1-TR-001420 from the National Center for Advancing Translational Sciences (NCATS). The Jackson Heart Study is supported by Contracts HHSN268201800010I, HHSN268201800011I, HHSN268201800012I, HHSN268201800013I, HHSN268201800014I, HHSN268201800015I from the National Heart, Lung and Blood Institute (NHLBI) with additional support from the National Institute on Minority Health and Health Disparities (NIMHD). AGB received support from the US National Institutes of Health with payment to the institution. EWG is supported by Research Ireland [22/RP/10091]. The Aichi Workers’ Cohort Study is supported by MEXT/JSPS (22390133, 23659346, 26293153, 16K19278, 18H03057, and 22H03349), Health and Labor Sciences research grants for Comprehensive Research on Cardiovascular and Life-Style Related Diseases (H26-Junkankitou [Seisaku]-Ippan-001, H29-Junkankitou [Seishuu]-Ippan-003, 20FA1002, and 23FA1006), and for Occupational Health (23JA1006) from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Japan. The Toyama Study is supported by the Health and Labor Sciences research grants for Comprehensive Research on Cardiovascular and Life-Style Related Diseases (H26-Junkankitou [Seisaku]-Ippan-001, H29-Junkankitou [Seishuu]-Ippan-003, 20FA1002, and 23FA1006) from the Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare, Japan.

: DJM is a member of the editorial board of Diabetologia but was not involved in any of the decisions regarding review of the manuscript or its acceptance for publication. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: ND, ML, RRH, CMYL, JAP, JES and MM contributed to the conception and design of the study and to the interpretation of the data. RRH acquired funding for the ODCDC consortium. ND and MM conducted the formal analysis. RJA, FA, AGB, SC, EWG, TKG, FH, DK, DJM, MMC, GDM, JES, MS, and HY contributed to the acquisition of data. ND drafted the original manuscript with support from MM. All authors reviewed and revised the manuscript critically for important intellectual content, approved the final version, and had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication. ND, ML and MM are the guarantors of this work and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.