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Article History

Received: 13 May 2025

Accepted: 6 August 2025

First Online: 9 November 2025

Acknowledgements

: This article is based in part on data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD) Aurum obtained under licence from the UK Medicines and Healthcare Products Regulatory Agency. CPRD data are provided and collected by the UK National Health Service as part of patient care and support. This research was carried out at the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Exeter Biomedical Research Centre (BRC). The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. A list of MASTERMIND Consortium members is included in the .

: All CPRD data are available by application to the CPRD Independent Scientific Advisory Committee ( ).

: All code to develop the CPRD cohort used in this study is available at . Code to reproduce the analyses in this article is available at .

: This research was supported by the Medical Research Council (UK) (MR/N00633X/1) and the European Foundation for the Study of Diabetes. The funders had no role in the study design, data collection, data analysis, data interpretation, writing of the article, or the decision to submit for publication.

: JMD is supported by a Wellcome Trust Early Career award (227070/Z/23/Z). ATH and BMS are supported by the NIHR Exeter Clinical Research Facility; the views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NHS, the NIHR or the Department of Health. AGJ declares research funding to his university from the UK Medical Research Council, NIHR, Diabetes UK, Breakthrough T1D, the Novo Nordisk Foundation and European Foundation for the Study of Diabetes. ERP has received honoraria for speaking from Lilly, Novo Nordisk and Illumina. RAO declares consulting income from Sanofi and honoraria from Sanofi and Novo Nordisk, in addition to research funding from NIDDK, Breakthrough T1D, The Leona M. and Larry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust and Randox Ltd. No industry representatives were involved in the writing of the manuscript or analysis of data. For all authors, these relationships are outside the submitted work; there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: The study concept and design were conceived and developed by TTJ, KGY, BMS, ATH, AGJ, RAO and JMD. TTJ, KGY, RH, BMS and JMD had access to all the raw datasets used for the study. TTJ directly accessed the Clinical Practice Research Datalink (CPRD), with support from KGY, RH, BMS and JMD. TTJ, KGY and JMD accessed and verified the underlying data used in the study. TTJ developed the kidney protection benefit model online calculator. All authors had full access to the complete results of the analysis of the CPRD dataset. All authors provided support for the analysis and interpretation of results, critically revised the article, and read and approved the final article. TTJ and JMD attest that all listed authors meet authorship criteria and that no others meeting the criteria have been omitted. TTJ is responsible for the integrity of the work as a whole. All authors had final responsibility for the decision to submit for publication.