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Article History

Received: 21 January 2025

Accepted: 22 July 2025

First Online: 8 November 2025

Acknowledgements

: The authors thank the many laboratory members who have worked with the authors over the years, and who have contributed experimental insights, and acknowledge the discussions with members of the scientific community that have shaped current understanding.

: JAP is supported by a Medical Research Council Career Development Award (MR/T010525/1) and on behalf of the ‘Steve Morgan Foundation type 1 Diabetes Grand Challenge’ by Breakthrough T1D UK (formerly JDRF), and SMF (grant no. 2-SRA-2024-1474-M-N). LW is supported by NIH (DK130318).

: FSW is a member of the Editorial Board of Diabetologia . The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: All authors were responsible for drafting the article and reviewing it critically for important intellectual content. All authors approved the version to be published.