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Article History

Received: 16 June 2025

Accepted: 4 September 2025

First Online: 11 November 2025

Acknowledgements

: We acknowledge the help of S. Walker, V. Karne, V. Potluri, M. Pagare, A. Champknathan, B. Wang, P. Joshee and L. Qmara, who were all were working at the Barbara Davis Center for Diabetes, University of Colorado, at the time of the active project, for their help with data collection and data cleaning.

: Data can be requested by contacting the corresponding author, indicating details of how the data are to be used. Data may be made available based on institutional agreements.

: We used data from a previously published project, which was funded by Breakthrough T1D (grant no. 2-SRA-2021-1069-S-B to VNS). The funder had no role in the current analysis. This work is funded by Abbott Diabetes Care.

: VNS’s institution has received research support from Dexcom, Eli Lilly, Enable Bioscience, Zucara Therapeutics, the Cystic Fibrosis Research Foundation, Breakthrough T1D and NIH. VNS reports receiving honoraria from Sanofi, NovoNordisk, Eli Lilly, Insulet, Tandem Diabetes Care, Dexcom, Ascensia Diabetes Care, Embecta, Biomea Fusion, Sequel Med Tech, Medtronic, Genomelink and Lumosfit for consultation, advice or speaking roles, outside the submitted work. All other authors are employees of Abbott Diabetes Care.

: VNS collected the data and shared the data with YX, conceived the concept, interpreted the data, and edited this manuscript. YX and TCD conceived the concept and added to the analysis the concept of using uGMI and combining uGMI with HbA 1c to detect diabetic retinopathy risk. YX and YD analysed the data. HPM, YX, YD, AC and TCD interpreted the data, and drafted and compiled the manuscript. All authors have reviewed and approved the final manuscript for publication. VNS and YX are the guarantors of this work.