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Authors
Wouters, Amber https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2624-8154
Lemaitre, Pierre https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0687-8685
Degroote, Laure https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7310-6103
Viaene, Marijke
Packbier, Marc https://orcid.org/0009-0004-7525-7991
Geukens, Nick https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5706-1072
Mathieu, Chantal https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4055-5233
Gysemans, Conny https://orcid.org/0000-0003-3559-6089
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (G.0316.25N)
Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (G.0667.21N)
Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (G.0C63.19N)
Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (I.0018.22N)
KU Leuven (C1/18/006)
KU Leuven (C16/24/012)
KU Leuven (KA/20/077)
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Article History
Received: 28 May 2025
Accepted: 2 September 2025
First Online: 20 November 2025
Acknowledgements
: We thank J. Laureys from the Leuven Diabetes Lab and S. Tops from PharmAbs for technical assistance. The authors thank the KU Leuven Flow and Mass Cytometry facility. Some of the data were presented as a poster presentation by AW at the 20th meeting of the Immunology of Diabetes Society (IDS) in November 2024 and at the 2nd annual meeting of the young Belgium Immunology Society (yBIS) in May 2025. ESM Fig. and the graphical abstract were created with BioRender.com.
: All data in this study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.
: This work was supported by research and infrastructure grants from the Flemish Research Foundation FWO (G.0C63.19N, G.0667.21N, G.0316.25N and I.0018.22N) and KU Leuven (C1 funding C1/18/006 and C16/24/012, and a small research infrastructure grant KA/20/077).
: CM serves or has served on advisory panels for AstraZeneca, Avotres, Boehringer Ingelheim, Eli Lilly and Company, Imcyse, Insulet, Mannkind, Medtronic, Merck Sharp and Dohme Ltd, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Pfizer, Precigen Actobio, Roche, Sandoz, Sanofi, Vertex Pharmaceuticals and Zealand Pharma. Financial compensation for these activities has been received by KU Leuven.
: All authors have contributed substantially to this study. CG designed the study. AW and CG wrote the first draft of the manuscript. AW, LD, MV and MP assisted in mouse treatment and follow-up. AW, MV and LD performed the spectral flow cytometry staining and AW analysed the data. PL designed the spectral flow cytometry panel and assisted with the unmixing of the raw data and UMAP analysis. NG developed the ADA assay. All authors critically revised the manuscript. CM and CG conceptualised the research goals, acquired major funding and discussed the data. CM and CG are the guarantors of this work and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. All authors approved the final version of this manuscript.
