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Article History

Received: 1 August 2025

Accepted: 24 October 2025

First Online: 28 November 2025

Data availability

: No new data were created or analysed in this article. Data sharing is not applicable to this article.

: This article received no specific funding from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. PJH is supported by an NIHR Advanced Research Fellowship (NIHR303176). PG, SS, MPF and KK are supported by the NIHR Applied Research Collaboration East Midlands (ARC EM). PG and KK are supported by the NIHR Leicester Biomedical Research Centre (BRC). KK is supported by the NIHR Global Health Research Centre for Multiple Long-Term Conditions and the Cross-NIHR Collaboration for Multiple Long-Term Conditions. L-LL is supported by Universiti Malaya (IF024-2025). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and not necessarily those of the NIHR, NHS or UK Department of Health and Social Care.

: FZ has acted as a consultant for Servier, Menarini and Daiichi Sankyo. L-LL has received research grants via her institution from Abbott Diabetes Care, AstraZeneca and Novartis; and speaker honoraria from Abbott, AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim, Novo Nordisk, Roche Diabetes Care and Zuellig Pharma. SS has received grants from Sanofi, AstraZeneca, Novo Nordisk, Boehringer Ingelheim, Servier and Lilly; speaker fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Janssen, Amgen, Sanofi, AstraZeneca, Abbott, Menarini, Dexcom and Daiichi Sankyo; travel support from AstraZeneca, Abbott, Menarini and Dexcom; and advisory board fees from Boehringer Ingelheim, Lilly, Novo Nordisk, AstraZeneca, Abbott and Dexcom. KK has acted as a consultant or speaker for, or received grants for investigator-initiated studies from, AstraZeneca, Bayer, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Sanofi-Aventis, Lilly, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Boehringer Ingelheim, Oramed Pharmaceuticals, Pfizer, Roche, Daiichi Sankyo and Applied Therapeutics. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: The idea for the article was conceived by KK. PJH drafted the article with support from all authors, and all authors were responsible for reviewing it critically for important intellectual content. All authors approved the version to be published.