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Article History

Received: 11 March 2025

Accepted: 8 October 2025

First Online: 21 December 2025

Acknowledgements

: The authors would like to thank K. Murrall (University of Exeter) for providing calculations for the determination of islet bin sizes within this manuscript. This research was performed with the support of the Network for Pancreatic Organ Donors with Diabetes (nPOD; RRID:SCR_014641), a collaborative type 1 diabetes research project supported by Breakthrough T1D and The Leona M. & Harry B. Helmsley Charitable Trust (grant 3-SRA-2023-1417-S-B). The content and views expressed are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official view of nPOD. Organ Procurement Organizations (OPOs) partnering with nPOD to provide research resources are listed at . The authors gratefully acknowledge the Exeter Centre for Cytomics at the University of Exeter for their support and assistance with this work. This study has been delivered through the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Exeter Biomedical Research Centre (BRC). The views expressed are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of Breakthrough T1D, Diabetes UK, the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care.

: All data are available in the main text or the electronic supplementary material ( ) or are available from the corresponding authors upon reasonable request. For the purpose of open access, the author has applied a Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) licence to any Author Accepted Manuscript version arising from this submission.

: This research was funded by a Breakthrough T1D International Strategic Research Agreement Grant (3-SRA-2023-1311-S-B, CR/SR/NGM), Breakthrough T1D UK Small Grant Award (1-SGA-2024-0003, RD-T/CR), Diabetes UK (21/0006353, CR/NGM) and Research England’s Expanding Excellence in England (E3) fund via EXCEED (CR). RD-T is funded by Breakthrough T1D (3-SRA-2023-1311-S-B). JA is funded by a Diabetes UK PhD studentship (21/0006353). SR is supported by a Steve Morgan Foundation Grand Challenge Senior Research Fellowship (22/0006504). The study sponsors/funders were not involved in the design of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing the report; and did not impose any restrictions regarding the publication of the report.

: The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: RD-T was involved in the conception and design; financial support; acquisition, analysis and interpretation of data; and drafting and critical review of the manuscript. JA was involved in the acquisition of data and critical review of the manuscript. NM was involved in the conception and design, financial support, interpretation of data and critical review of the manuscript. ME was involved in the conception and design, analysis and interpretation of data and critical review of the manuscript. SR was involved in the conception and design, financial support, interpretation of data and critical review of the manuscript. CR was involved in the conception and design, financial support, interpretation of data and drafting and critical review of the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript. CR was the principal investigator supervising this study and is the guarantor for this work.