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Article History

Received: 14 August 2025

Accepted: 2 December 2025

First Online: 13 February 2026

Acknowledgements

: We thank all study participants for their time and commitment. We gratefully acknowledge the contributions of A. F. Emara, A. Buser, E. Ballabani and A. Melmer and of the study nurse team (V. Brägger, J. F. Rodrigues Cunha Freitas, S. Tenisch) for their assistance with conducting the experiments, caring for study participants and support with data collection (all University Hospital Bern/University of Bern), as well as L. Meiller and V. Sauvinet (CRNH Lyon) for the measurement of plasma glucose isotopic enrichment. We also thank the research administration team of the Department of Diabetes, Endocrinology, Nutritional Medicine and Metabolism (University Hospital Bern/University of Bern) for their support in the logistical management of the study.

: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request.

: The project received support from the Swiss National Science Foundation (PCEGP3_186978), the Diabetes Center Bern, the Translational Imaging Center (TIC) of Sitem-Insel, and Luc Tappy (Emeritus Professor of the Institute of Physiology, University of Lausanne, Switzerland) who kindly contributed to the purchase of [6,6′- 2 H 2 ]-glucose. AB is supported by Piano Nazionale di Ripresa e Resilienza (PNRR) Next Generation EU ex Ministerial Decree (DM) 118/23.

: The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: DH, RK and LB designed the study. SP, NFL, AB, DH, RK and LB prepared and processed the data. All authors contributed to statistical analysis and interpretation of the results. AB, MS and CDM worked on the mathematical modelling analysis. AB, NFL and LB drafted the manuscript. NFL, SP, DH, RK and LB contributed to acquiring and managing the data. All authors contributed to the critical review of the manuscript. All authors approved the final version of the article, including the authorship list. LB is responsible for the integrity of the work as a whole.