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Article History

Received: 19 June 2025

Accepted: 8 December 2025

First Online: 24 February 2026

Acknowledgements

: The authors thank the staff of the Departments of Obstetrics and Gynaecology at the Clinical Hospital UC-CHRISTUS, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, for facilitating access to biological samples from pregnant women with and without gestational diabetes mellitus. We also extend our sincere gratitude to the participating women for their consent and to their newborns.

: The data that support the findings of this study are not openly available due to reasons of sensitivity and are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request. Data are located in controlled access data storage at the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile.

: This study was supported by the Research Directorate of the School of Medicine from the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (DIDEMUC, Institutional Ethics Committee protocol 220723001), the Fondo Nacional de Desarrollo Científico y Tecnológico (FONDECYT, grant numbers 1190316 and 1252163) from the Agencia Nacional de Investigación y Desarrollo (ANID), the International Sabbaticals (University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, the Netherlands) from the Vicerectorate of Academic Affairs, the Academic Development Office of the Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile (Chile) and Thematic Project – Diamater, São Paulo Research Foundation (FAPESP) (grant number 16/01743-5) (Brazil). GF, MC, PV and KS hold PhD fellowships from ANID (21222280, 21221950, 21221870, 21251843, respectively) (Chile). GF and MC hold PhD fellowships from the Abel Talent Tasman Project (ATTP) from the University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen (the Netherlands). GF, PV and MC hold PhD fellowships from the Universidad de Talca (Chile). The study funders were not involved in the design of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing the manuscript; and did not impose any restrictions regarding the publication of the results.

: The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: GF and LS conceived and designed the study, conducted data curation and developed the conceptual framework. GF, J-LH, HvG, DRG, MAR and LS performed the formal analysis, while GF and LS prepared the visualisations and drafted the original manuscript. GF, HvG, J-LH, DRG, KS, PV, MAR and LS contributed to manuscript review and editing. GF, PV, KS, PV, MAR, MC and LS were involved in the investigation and methodology. All authors reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. LS is the guarantor of this study and accepts full responsibility for the work and/or the conduct of the study, had access to the data and controlled the decision to publish.