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Article History

Received: 22 August 2025

Accepted: 16 December 2025

First Online: 25 February 2026

Acknowledgements

: First, we wish to express our gratitude to the participants of the studies. Without your contribution, this research would not have been possible. We also wish to thank A. Jones for critical evaluation of our findings. This study was conducted with the support of the NIHR Exeter Biomedical Research Centre (BRC).This publication is based on research using data from the Type 1 Diabetes EXercise Initiative (T1DEXI) and Type 1 Diabetes EXercise Initiative Pediatric (T1DEXIP) studies that have been made available through Vivli Inc. Vivli has not contributed to or approved, and is not in any way responsible for, the contents of this publication.During the course of preparing this work, the authors used ChatGPT and Copilot for the purpose of summarising research papers, text editing and providing code snippets. Following the use of this tool/service, the authors formally reviewed the content for its accuracy and edited it as necessary. The authors take full responsibility for all the content of this publication.

: The T1DEXI and T1DEXIP datasets are available through application to Vivli Inc. ( ). The EXTOD-101 and EXTOD-Education datasets are available from the study investigators upon reasonable request.

: All code for this project is openly available in a GitHub repository ( ).

: This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.

: JSP has served on advisory boards for Abbott and Roche and has received speaker fees from Abbott, Dexcom and Insulet within the last three years. He is also a faculty member of the EXercise in Type One Diabetes group. RCA has received research funding from Novo Nordisk Healthcare Organisation within the last three years and has received honoraria from Novo Nordisk, AstraZeneca and Eli Lilly for educational talks on diet and exercise to healthcare professionals. He is a co-founder of the EXercise in Type One Diabetes group. The remaining authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: All authors were involved in the conception, design and conduct of the study, as well as the analysis and interpretation of the results. CLR wrote the code and the first draft of the manuscript. MJA served as the technical advisor for code and data analysis, RCA acted as the clinical advisor, and RMP provided expertise as the sports science advisor. All authors edited, reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. CLR is the guarantor of this work, and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.