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Article History

Received: 20 January 2026

Accepted: 22 January 2026

First Online: 7 March 2026

Acknowledgements

: We thank all participants in the GWAS consortia, data from which were used in this study. We gratefully acknowledge All of Us participants for their contributions, without whom this research would not have been possible. We also thank the National Institutes of Health’s All of Us Research Program for making available the participant data examined in this study. Some of the data were presented as an abstract at the 51st Annual Conference of the International Society for Pediatric and Adolescent Diabetes (ISPAD) meeting in 2025.

: The list of GWAS used and full summary statistics available are presented in the ESM (ESM Table ). Access to individual-level data for the analysed cohorts is possible upon data application request. UKB data were accessed under the application number 399545.

: R codes and files used to generate the PRS are available via Zenodo ( ).

: This work was funded by a Breakthrough T1D international grant (grant key: 2-SRA-2022-1262-S-B). DM is a Fonds de Recherche du Quebec-Santé (FRQS) Junior 2 Scholar and has received a Career Development Award from ENRICH (Empowering Next-Generation Researchers in Perinatal and Child Health). GB-L is a Fonds de Recherche du Quebec-Santé (FRQS) Junior 1 Scholar. Funding for the GRACE cohort: Key R&D Program Projects in Zhejiang Province (2024C03154) and with ethics approval no. 2024-IRB-0270-P-0.

: DM has received speaker and advisory board honoraria from Sanofi Canada. CP has received advisory board honoraria from Sanofi Canada. YL has participated in an advisory board of Sanofi China. TL has been consulting for Five Prime Sciences on research programmes unrelated to this work. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: DM, CMTG and CP conceived the study and supervised the analyses. BJ drafted the manuscript, developed the PRS and performed the analyses on the Montreal-based cohort. H-QQ performed the analysis on the CHOP-CAG cohort. TL performed the analysis on the All of Us Biobank. WB performed the analyses in UK Biobank and the pseudo-GWAS. KL and YL performed the analysis on the GRACE cohort. All authors contributed to study design and reviewing and writing the manuscript. All authors critically reviewed and approved the final version of the manuscript. DM is the guarantor of the manuscript.