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Authors
Peng, Ruyi https://orcid.org/0009-0000-9892-7637
Liu, Lei https://orcid.org/0009-0008-1786-0740
Chu, Xiaomeng https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6396-8578
Xia, Zhijie https://orcid.org/0009-0008-3449-0286
Fu, Qi https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2463-3123
Silva, Lilian Fernandes https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0225-842X
Ji, Xiaolong https://orcid.org/0009-0000-5930-041X
Hu, Xinxian https://orcid.org/0009-0002-6185-3173
Liang, Yuxi https://orcid.org/0009-0007-2127-8377
Li, Jack https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6126-0701
Ryan, Brady https://orcid.org/0009-0009-4164-2871
Bose, Debraj https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3177-6608
Stringham, Heather M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2991-6392
Morrison, Jean https://orcid.org/0000-0003-4829-8283
Wen, Xiaoquan https://orcid.org/0000-0001-8990-2737
Scott, Laura J. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4886-5084
Burant, Charles F. https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9189-5003
Fauman, Eric https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9739-0249
Yang, Tao https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6375-3622
Boehnke, Michael https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6442-7754
Laakso, Markku https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3394-7749
Yin, Xianyong https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6454-2384
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Nanjing Medical University (Award NMUR20230003)
University of Michigan (Precision Health Scholarship (X. Y.))
National Science and Technology Major Project (2025ZD0550702)
Research Council of Finland (Grant no. 321428 (M. L.))
American Diabetes Association (Postdoctoral Fellowship (1-19-PDF-061)
American Diabetes Association (X. Y.))
Jiangsu Professorship
National Natural Science Foundation of China (82574183(X. Y.))
Clinical Center (R01 DK119380)
Clinical Center (R35 GM138121)
Clinical Center (U01 DK062370)
Sigrid Juselius Foundation
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Article History
Received: 9 August 2025
Accepted: 19 January 2026
First Online: 18 March 2026
Acknowledgements
: We thank all the METSIM participants for their contribution to this research.
: The datasets generated during and/or analysed in the current study are available in dbGaP (accession ID: phs000743.v4.p1 and phs004033.v1.p1).
: This work was supported by the National Institutes of Health (NIH) under awards U01 DK062370 (MB), R35 GM138121 (XQW), R01 DK119380 (XQW), the American Diabetes Association Postdoctoral Fellowship (1-19-PDF-061, XY), the University of Michigan Precision Health Scholarship (XY), the Academy of Finland (grant no. 321428, ML), the Sigrid Juselius Foundation (ML), National Natural Science Foundation of China (82574183, XY), Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases-National Science and Technology Major Project (2025ZD0550702, XY), Jiangsu Professorship (XY) and Nanjing Medical University (NMUR20230003, XY).
: EF is an employee and stockholder of Pfizer. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.
: XY, MB and ML conceived and designed the study. XY, MB, ML, LFS, JL, BR, DB, HMS, JM, XW, LJS, CFB and EF contributed to the acquisition of data. RP, LL, XC, ZX, QF, XJ, XH, YL and TY analysed or interpreted the data. RP and LL drafted the manuscript. XY, MB, ML, XC, ZX, QF, LFS, XJ, XH, YL, JL, BR, DB, HMS, JM, XW, LJS, CFB, EF and TY critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors approved the final version to be published. XY, MB and ML are the guarantors of this work and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and take responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.
