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Authors
de Kam, Soraya S. https://orcid.org/0009-0009-5040-6117
van der Velde, Jeroen H. P. M. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2904-4598
Veelen, Anna https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5846-4444
Jörgensen, Johanna A. https://orcid.org/0009-0009-6404-1956
Hoeks, Joris https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0265-0870
Schrauwen, Patrick https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0973-847X
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Canadian Institutes of Health Research (TNC-174963)
Health-Holland (LSHM20107)
ZonMw (459001021)
Diabetes Fonds (2019.11.101)
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Article History
Received: 18 November 2025
Accepted: 5 March 2026
First Online: 12 May 2026
Acknowledgements
: We sincerely thank all participants who took part in the studies, and we extend our gratitude to researchers from the Department of Nutrition and Movement Sciences at Maastricht University who conducted the human clinical trials included in this analysis. Parts of the data presented here were previously shown as a poster at the Dutch Translational Metabolism Conference (DTMC) and as an oral presentation at the Annual Dutch Diabetes Research Meeting (ADDRM) in 2025. Part of the data presented in this manuscript has previously been published in a PhD thesis of AV. Veelen, A (2023). Improving flexibility in substrate metabolism: a pharmacological and lifestyle approach [Doctoral thesis, Maastricht University]. Available from: .
: Datasets of this study can be made available upon reasonable request.
: This study was funded by The Netherlands Organization for Health Research and Development (ZonMw) [459001021], the Dutch Diabetes Research Foundation (Diabetes Fonds) [2019.11.101], the Canadian Institutes of Health Research (CIHR) [TNC-174963] and Health-Holland [LSHM20107]. This collaborative project is co-financed with a PPP-allowance made available by Health-Holland, Topsector Life Sciences & Health, to stimulate public–private partnerships.
: PS is a member of the editorial board of Diabetologia . He was not involved in the handling or decision-making process of the manuscript. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.
: SSdK, JvdV, AV, JH and PS designed the study. SSdK carried out the data analysis and drafted the initial manuscript. JvdV, JH and PS supervised the data analysis and contributed to data interpretation. JJ performed laboratory analysis on blood samples from studies that did not include the relevant measurements for this study. All authors critically reviewed and approved the final manuscript to be published. JH is the guarantor of this work.
