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Article History

Received: 9 January 2026

Accepted: 23 March 2026

First Online: 23 May 2026

Acknowledgements

: We are grateful to the study participants, and we appreciate the help from employees at the Center for Clinical Metabolic Research at Herlev-Gentofte Hospital, especially medical student N. Mernild who assisted with the clinical part of the study.

: Data analysed in the current study are not publicly available due to data protection regulations but are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request starting from the date of publication and for a minimum of 5 years. Data will be shared with qualified researchers addressing research questions meeting legal and ethical requirements. Data will be shared in anonymised form as Excel sheets.

: The research was funded by EFSD/Lilly European Diabetes Research Programme 2021, the RUCILP F-19235-01-64-NNF21SA0070428 grant and the NNF23SA0084103 grant from Novo Nordisk Foundation. The Novo Nordisk Foundation Center for Basic Metabolic Research is an independent Research Center, based at the Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark and partially funded by an unconditional donation from the Novo Nordisk Foundation ( , grant no. NNF23SA0084103). The study sponsor/funder was not involved in the design of the study; the collection, analysis, and interpretation of data; writing the report; and did not impose any restrictions regarding the publication of the report.

: ABL has received research support from Novo Nordisk and honoraria as a speaker for Boehringer Ingelheim, Novo Nordisk and AstraZeneca, and has served on the advisory board of Eli Lilly. FKK is currently employed by Novo Nordisk. YF and OP are founders of GutCRINE. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: OP, JG, YF and LSG designed the protocol for the clinical trial. OP supervised all phases of the study. ABL co-supervised the clinical part of the study. JG recruited and phenotyped the study participants and conducted the clinical part of the study. JG did the statistical analysis with supervision from YF. Plasma analyses of plasma incretins and PYY were done by BH and JJH. All authors contributed to the interpretation of the data. JG and OP drafted the manuscript with assistance from the other authors. All authors approved the manuscript. OP is guarantor of this work.