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Article History

Received: 14 January 2026

Accepted: 22 April 2026

First Online: 11 July 2026

Acknowledgements

: The authors thank the individuals who participated in this study, as well as the physicians, nurses and staff of the Children’s Wisconsin and the Max McGee Research Center for Juvenile Diabetes who assisted in participant recruitment and sample collection/processing. The authors thankfully acknowledge the philanthropy of the George and Ruth Leef Family and ITU AbsorbTech, Shirley and Albert Schmidt, the David & Julia Uihlein Charitable Foundation and the Children’s Wisconsin Foundation.

: All microarray gene expression data files have been deposited at The National Center for Biotechnology Information Gene Expression Omnibus (accession no. GSE302205).

: This work was supported by the American Diabetes Association (1-19-ICTS-129), National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases (R01 DK 125014 and R01 DK 121528), and Juvenile Diabetes Research Foundation International (3-SRA-2018-478-S-B). The studied clinical trials were performed under the auspices of the Type 1 Diabetes TrialNet Study Group, a clinical trials network funded by the NIH through the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, the National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases and the Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development via cooperative agreements U01 DK061010, U01 DK061016, U01 DK061034, U01 DK061036, U01 DK061040, U01 DK061041, U01 DK061042, U01 DK061055, U01 DK061058, U01 DK084565, U01 DK085453, U01 DK085461, U01 DK085463, U01 DK085466, U01 DK085499, U01 DK085505 and U01 DK085509, U01 DK085476, U01 DK097835, U01 DK103266, U01 DK103282, U01 DK 106984, U01 DK107014, U01 DK106993 and contract HHSN267200800019C. The contents of this paper are solely the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily represent the official views of the NIH.

: The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

: AB, C-WL, Y-GC and MJH conceived this project. TP, MFR and NAT conducted experiments. AB, SJ, C-WL and MJH analysed and/or interpreted data. AB and MJH wrote the manuscript. All authors reviewed and edited the manuscript, and approved the final version. AB and MJH are the guarantors of the work.