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Article History

Received: 5 January 2026

Accepted: 1 June 2026

First Online: 25 July 2026

Ethics

Acknowledgements: Parts of this work are based on TM’s PhD thesis [ ]. Figure has been adapted and parts of the introduction and discussion section of the PhD thesis have been reused.

Funding: The German Diabetes Center is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Culture and Science of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The German Center for Diabetes Research is funded by the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research. JMD and PC are supported by a Wellcome Trust Early-Career Award (227070/Z/23/Z) and the NIHR Exeter Biomedical Research Centre. The views expressed are those of the authors and not necessarily those of the NIHR or the Department of Health and Social Care. TM is supported by the EASD mentorship programme. CH was supported by a grant from Horizon Europe (Intercept-T2D, 101095433). Neither of these funders had any role in the design, execution, analyses, interpretation of data or decision to submit results in this study. In particular, the research reported here received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors. The sole responsibility for the content of this publication lies with the authors.

Authors’ relationships and activities: CH is Reviews Editor for Diabetologia . JMD received an honorarium from Abbott. OK received honoraria for biostatistical education from Berlin-Chemie. The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

Contribution statement: TM conceptualised the review, prepared the visualisations, wrote the first draft and edited and reviewed the manuscript. CH, PC, and JMD contributed substantially to the conceptualisation of the review and to data interpretation, and reviewed it critically for important intellectual content. OK contributed substantially to the conceptualisation of the review and to data interpretation, reviewed it critically for important intellectual content, and provided supervision. All authors gave final approval of this version to be published. TM is the guarantor of this work and, as such, had full access to all the data in the study and takes responsibility for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis.