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Article History

Received: 31 December 2025

Accepted: 4 June 2026

First Online: 14 August 2026

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Acknowledgements: The authors thank the research staff of the Metabolic Research Unit and the Stable Isotope Core Laboratory of the Baylor–USDA Children’s Nutrition Research Center, the staff of the Baylor–St Luke’s Medical Center Clinical Research Center, M. Herman (Baylor College of Medicine) for helpful review of the manuscript, C. Minard (Baylor College of Medicine) for providing valuable statistical advice, A. Gillum (USDA Children’s Nutrition Research Center) for graphical assistance and all the study participants.

Data availability: Data are available from the corresponding authors on reasonable request starting from the date of publication and will remain accessible for a minimum of 10 years. Access will be granted to qualified researchers to address research questions consistent with the scope of the original study and with ethical and legal requirements.

Funding: Research reported in this publication was supported by the National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases under award number R01 DK101411. The content is solely the responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily represent the official views of the National Institutes of Health.

Authors’ relationships and activities: The authors declare that there are no relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

Contribution statement: FJ and AB designed the research, interpreted data, drafted the manuscript and share primary responsibility for the final content of the manuscript. AE, AG, RG and SNM participated in acquisition of data; JWH, AB and MT performed the infusion studies; JWH and EC performed biochemical analyses; and JWH performed hormonal assays, mass spectrometry, calculations and statistical analysis. All authors edited and approved the final manuscript. AB and FJ are the guarantors of this work.