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Article History

Received: 20 March 2026

Accepted: 27 April 2026

First Online: 10 September 2026

Ethics

Acknowledgements: Part of this work was included in GS’s PhD thesis awarded by the University of Sheffield in 2022, and is available through the White Rose eTheses Online repository ( ).

Data availability: The de-identified data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request for up to 5 years following publication. Data will be shared for non-commercial research purposes, subject to institutional approval, participant consent, and applicable data protection regulations.

Funding: Sheffield Teaching Hospitals Diabetes Charitable Trust funded this study.

Authors’ relationships and activities: DS is a member of the Editorial Board of Diabetologia . The authors declare that there are no other relationships or activities that might bias, or be perceived to bias, their work.

Contribution statement: GS, SC, IW, DS and ST contributed to the conception and design of the study. GS, AA, KT, IW, AT, DS and ST contributed to the acquisition, analysis and interpretation of the data. GS and ST drafted the manuscript. AA, KT, SC, IW, AT and DS critically revised the manuscript for important intellectual content. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript and agree to be accountable for all aspects of the work. ST is the guarantor of this work.