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Article History

Received: 3 December 2025

Accepted: 28 January 2026

First Online: 17 February 2026

Declarations

:

: AJ: ownership interest in Perceptive Medical, Newport beach, CA, USA and is/has received research funding from Edwards Lifesciences, Irvine, USA. JLF: received honoraria and speaker’s fees from Edwards Lifesciences (Irvine, California, USA), AOP Orphan Pharmaceuticals France (Nanterre, France), and Masimo International (Irvine, California, USA). DIS: advisor and shareholder, Perceptive Medical (Irvine, CA); advisory board, Masimo (Irvine, CA); consultant, Dynacardia (Cambridge, Massachussets). MSC: received honoraria and speaker’s fees from Edwards Lifesciences (Irvine, California, USA), AOP Orphan Pharmaceuticals France (Nanterre, France), Philips Healthcare (Böbligen, Germany), Laboratoire Agguetant (Lyon, France). EF: received consulting fees from Draeger Medical, consulting fees from GE Healthcare, and lecture fees from Fisher & Paykel Healthcare. MJL: received honoraria and speaker’s fees from Edwards Lifesciences (Irvine, California, USA), AOP Orphan Pharmaceuticals France (Nanterre, France). BS: BS is a consultant for Edwards Lifesciences (Irvine, CA, USA), Philips North America (Cambridge, MA, USA), GE Healthcare (Chicago, IL, USA), Vygon (Aachen, Germany), Masimo (Neuchâtel, Switzerland), Retia Medical (Valhalla, NY, USA), Maquet Critical Care (Solna, Sweden), Pulsion Medical Systems (Feldkirchen, Germany), Dynocardia (Cambridge, MA, USA), RDS (Strasbourg, France). BS has received institutional restricted research grants from Edwards Lifesciences, Baxter (Deerfield, IL, USA), GE Healthcare, Masimo, Philips Medizin Systeme Böblingen (Böblingen, Germany), CNSystems Medizintechnik (Graz, Austria), Pulsion Medical Systems, Vygon, Retia Medical, Osypka Medical (Berlin, Germany). BS has received honoraria for giving lectures from Edwards Lifesciences, Philips Medizin Systeme Böblingen, Baxter, GE Healthcare, Masimo, CNSystems Medizintechnik, Getinge (Gothenburg, Sweden), Pulsion Medical Systems, Vygon, Ratiopharm (Ulm, Germany). BS is an Editor of the British Journal of Anaesthesia. DPV received institutional restricted research grants from Edwards Lifesciences (Irivine California) and Philips Medical B.V (Eindhoven, The Netherlands). MSC is a Section Editor for Intensive Care Medicine. She has not taken part in the review or selection process of this article.

: Non applicable for a review article.