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Article History

Received: 13 February 2026

Accepted: 13 May 2026

First Online: 8 June 2026

Declarations

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: The Department of Anaesthesiology, Intensive Care Medicine & Pain Therapy of the University Hospital Frankfurt, Goethe University received support from B. Braun Melsungen, Melsungen (Germany), CSL Behring, Hattersheim (Germany), Fresenius Kabi, Bad Homburg (Germany), and Vifor Pharma, Munich (Germany) for the implementation of Frankfurt’s Patient Blood Management program. KZ has received honoraria for participation in advisory board meetings for Haemonetics, Boston (USA) and Vifor, Munich (Germany) and received speaker fees from CSL Behring, Hattersheim (Germany), Masimo, Irvine (USA), Pharmacosmos, Copenhagen (Denmark), Boston Scientific, Düsseldorf (Germany), Salus, Bruckmühl (Germany), iSEP, Nantes (France), Edwards, Munich (Germany), Hemosonics, Asnières-sur-Seine (France) and GE Healthcare, Düsseldorf (Germany). He is the Principal Investigator of the EU-Horizon 2020 project ENVISION (Intelligent plug-and-play digital tool for real-time surveillance of COVID-19 patients and smart decision-making in Intensive Care Units) and Horizon Europe 2021 project COVend (Biomarker and AI-supported FX06 therapy to prevent progression from mild and moderate to severe stages of COVID-19). Partner for EU Horizon 2023 project EDiHTA. KZ leads as CEO the Christoph Lohfert Foundation, Hamburg (Germany) as well as the Health, Patient Safety & PBM Foundation, Bad Homburg (Germany). DMB: speaker honoraria and travel support from CSL Vifor and Astropharma. SL received consulting and speaker fee from CSL-VIFOR, MASIMO, PHARMACOSMOS and Pfizer, outside the present work. DF received lecture and advisory fees as well as grants and scientific support from Astra Zeneca, Baxter, B. Braun Melsungen AG, Cytosorb, CSL Behring, Haemonetics, IL Werfen, LFB France, Mitsubishi Pharma, and Octapharm. G.M. received restricted research grants and consultancy fees from B. Braun Melsungen AG, 4Teen4, and Adrenomed AG outside of the submitted work. APJV is funded by Zorgonderzoek Medische Wetenschappen, part of the Nederlandse Organisatie voor Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek (the Dutch Organization for Scientific Research, Den Haag, The Netherlands; VIDI grant project 09150172010047). APJV reports having received grants and consulting fees from AM Pharma, CSL Behring, InflaRx and Edwards Lifesciences paid to the institution. SC has no conflict of interest.