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Article History

Received: 13 March 2026

Accepted: 25 June 2026

First Online: 17 July 2026

Declarations

Conflicts of interest: AFS is funded by an NHMRC Investigator Grant (GNT2033850). RSB is supported by a National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Senior Clinical and Practitioner Research Award (NIHR304524). The views expressed in this publication are those of the author and not necessarily those of the NHS, the National Institute for Health and Care Research or the Department of Health and Social Care. DMN was the principal investigator on a NIH-funded, multi-centred randomised trial (R01HL132887) evaluating nutrition and exercise in acute respiratory failure and, related to this trial, received an unrestricted research grant and donated an amino acid product from Baxter Healthcare Corporation and an equipment loan or donation from Reck Medical Devices/Enable ME LLC. PS has received institutional grants and speaker fees from Nestle, Fresenius Kabi, BAXTER and/or ART MEDICAL, limited stock options in respect of value commensurate with consultancy services from ARTMEDICAL. AvZ reports that no specific funding was received for this manuscript. In the past 36 months, research grants from Danone-Nutricia, AOP Pharma, PAION, and Rousselot were paid to the ICU Research Foundation. He has received honoraria and support for lectures and educational activities from Abbott, AOP Pharma, Baxter, Cardinal Health, Dutch Medical Food, Fresenius Kabi, GE Healthcare, InBody, Nestlé Healthcare, Nutricia-Danone, and PAION. He has also received travel support from these companies. All payments were made to the author unless otherwise specified. He serves in unpaid leadership roles within ESPEN (guideline committees on adult ICU and cardiology nutrition), is Associate Editor for Clinical Nutrition and Critical Care, is Chair of NESPEN, and Treasurer of SepsisNet Netherlands. The author declares no other conflicts of interest related to the content of this manuscript. CLH is funded by a NHMRC Investigator Grant (GNT203103). SJS received grants and non-financial support from Reactive Robotics GmbH (Munich, Germany), ASP GmbH (Attendorn, Germany), STIMIT AG (Biel, Switzerland), ESICM (Geneva, Switzerland), as well as grants, personal fees, and non-financial support from Fresenius Kabi Deutschland GmbH (Bad Homburg, Germany), grants from the Innovationsfond of the Federal Joint Committee (G-BA) and EU/European Commission, personal fees from Springer Verlag GmbH (Vienna, Austria) for educational purposes, and Advanz Pharma GmbH (Bielefeld, Germany), and non-financial support from national and international societies (and their congress organisers) in the fields of anaesthesiology and intensive care medicine, outside the submitted work. Dr. Schaller holds small amounts of stock in Alphabet Inc., Ascendis Pharma Inc., Bayer AG, and Siemens AG; these holdings have not influenced any decisions regarding his research or this study. SJS reports that he is an associate editor of ICM and that he did not participate in the review or decision-making process for the current manuscript. All other authors report no conflict of interest.