Document is current

Article History

Received: 24 November 2025

Accepted: 3 February 2026

First Online: 5 March 2026

Declarations

: We declare that we have no financial and personal relationships with other people or organizations that can inappropriately influence our work, and there is no professional or other personal interest of any nature or kind in any product, service and company that could be construed as influencing the position presented in, or the review of, the manuscript entitled.

: All authors have read and approved the final manuscript. The initial concept and first draft, as well as subsequent revisions, were developed by Kuo-Ming Huang, including the design methodology for the glass die. Chuan-Hsiang Chang contributed to material preparation, data collection, and analysis, and provided valuable insights during result interpretation. Chia-Ling Chen and Zi-Yao Lin were responsible for experimental design, testing procedures, and verification of the glass die forming performance.