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Article History

Received: 5 November 2025

Revised: 24 January 2026

Accepted: 12 February 2026

First Online: 12 March 2026

Declarations

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: Human biological samples were submitted to the Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg for routine toxicological analysis of designer stimulants. No personal or identifying data such as gender, age, body weight, amount and timing of intake, co-ingestion of other substances, or storage conditions were available. The analyses were solely performed at the client’s request for routine toxicological analysis. In vitro experiments were conducted using pooled human liver microsomes obtained from commercial sources. No animal experiments were performed in this study.

: The study was performed exclusively on anonymized biological samples originally collected for routine clinical or forensic toxicological purposes. As the analyses were performed within routine casework and no additional sampling or identifiable data were involved, no ethical approval or additional informed consent was required.

: The authors declare no competing interests.