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Article History

Received: 13 March 2026

Accepted: 10 June 2026

First Online: 20 June 2026

Declarations

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: The authors declare no competing financial or non-financial interests related to this work. Here are attached the full financial disclosures not related to the present work: Alice Galli is supported by #NEXTGENERATIONEU (NGEU), Mission 1, Component 4 (CUP D82B23003790008). Silvia Paola Caminiti is supported by #NEXTGENERATIONEU (NGEU) and fundedby the Ministry of University and Research (MUR), National Recovery and Resilience Plan(NRRP), project MNESYS (PE0000006) – A multiscale integrated approach to the study of the nervous system in health and disease (DN. 1553 11.10.2022).Alessandro Padovani received grant support from Ministry of Health (MINSAL) and Ministry of Education, Research and University (MIUR), IMI H2020 initiative (IMI2-2018-15-06) and received speaker honoraria from Biogen, Lundbeck, Lilli, Roche Pharma.Andrea Pilotto received grant support from IMI H2020 initiative (IMI2-2018-15-06), Ministry of Health (MINSAL) Ministry of Education, Research and University (MIUR), Airalzh, LIMPE-DIsmoV Academy and received honoraria from the Movement Disorder Society, Abbvie, Bial, Eli Lilly, Lundbeck, Roche, Zambon Pharma.PPMI – a public-private partnership – is funded by the Michael J. Fox Foundation forParkinson’s Research and funding partners, including 4D Pharma, Abbvie, AcureX, Allergan,Amathus Therapeutics, Aligning Science Across Parkinson's, AskBio, Avid Radiopharmaceuticals, BIAL, Biogen, Biohaven, BioLegend, BlueRock Therapeutics, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Calico Labs, Celgene, Cerevel Therapeutics, Coave Therapeutics, DaCapo Brainscience, Denali, Edmond J. Safra Foundation, Eli Lilly, Gain Therapeutics, GE HealthCare, Genentech, GSK, Golub Capital, Handl Therapeutics, Insitro, Janssen Neuroscience, Lundbeck, Merck, Meso Scale Discovery,Mission Therapeutics, Neurocrine Biosciences, Pfizer, Piramal, Prevail Therapeutics, Roche,Sanofi, Servier, Sun Pharma Advanced Research Company, Takeda, Teva, UCB, Vanqua Bio, Verily, Voyager Therapeutics, the Weston Family Foundation and Yumanity Therapeutics.

: PPMI cohort - The institutional review board approved the study at each site, and informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study. UniBS cohort- The research protocol was approved by the Ethics Committee of the Brescia Hospital, Brescia, Italy (DNA study, NP 1471). Written informed consent was collected from each participant and the study was conducted in accordance with the declaration of Helsinki.