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Article History

Received: 26 August 2025

Accepted: 3 March 2026

First Online: 31 March 2026

Compliance with Ethical Standards

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: The authors declare no competing interests.

: This study was conducted using secondary data (spatial, statistical, and institutional records) and primary field surveys with community participants. Ethical approval for research involving human participants (household surveys, focus group discussions, and key-informant interviews) was granted by the Ethics Committee of Universitas Negeri Padang. Collaborating researchers from the National Research and Innovation Agency and Universiti Malaya conducted the study in accordance with this approval and their respective institutional policies. All procedures involving human participants complied with national and institutional guidelines and adhered to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki, including respect for individuals, informed consent, minimization of risk, and confidentiality.

: The datasets generated and analyzed during this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Administrative records from schools and civil society organizations are institutional documents and are not publicly archived, but can be accessed upon formal request to the respective institutions.

: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in household surveys, focus group discussions, and key-informant interviews, prior to data collection. Participation was voluntary, and confidentiality was maintained.