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Article History

Received: 17 December 2024

Revised: 19 April 2025

Accepted: 21 April 2025

First Online: 29 April 2025

Declarations

:

: Laura Cacciaguerra received speaker and consultant honoraria from ACCMED, Roche, BMS Celgene, and Sanofi and travel support for conferences from Merck Serono. She serves as Review Editor for Brain Health and Clinical Neuroscience (section of Frontiers in Human Neuroscience) and Clinical Neuroimaging (section of Frontiers in Neuroimaging). Ajay Madhavan reports no disclosures. Elia Sechi received speaker honoraria and/or support for attending scientific meetings from Alexion, Horizon, Novartis, Roche, and UCB. He serves as an editorial board member for BMC Neurology and Frontiers in Neurology. Dr. Sechi is a member of the medical advisory board of the MOG project. Karl N. Krecke reports no disclosures. Sean J. Pittock has received personal compensation for serving as a consultant for Roche/Genentech, Sage Therapeutics, Arialys, and Astellas. He has received personal compensation for serving on scientific advisory boards or data safety monitoring boards for F. Hoffman-La Roche AG, Genentech, Arialys, and UCB. His institution has received compensation for serving as a consultant for Astellas, Alexion, and Viela Bio/MedImmune. All compensation is paid to Mayo Clinic. He has received research support from Alexion, Viela Bio/MedImmune, Roche/Genentech, and Adimmune. He has a patent, Patent# 8,889,102 (Application#12–678350, Neuromyelitis Optica Autoantibodies as a Marker for Neoplasia)—issued, and a patent, Patent# 9,891,219B2 (Application#12–573942, Methods for Treating Neuromyelitis Optica (NMO) by Administration of Eculizumab to an individual that is Aquaporin-4 (AQP4)-IgG Autoantibody positive)––issued, and from which he has received royalties and a patent for GFAP-IgG, Septin-5-IgG, MAP1B-IgG, Kelch-like protein 11, and PDE10A pending. He is working as a consultant in the Mayo Clinic Neuroimmunology laboratory clinical service. The Mayo Clinic Neuroimmunology Laboratory commercially offers MOG-IgG testing, but revenue accrued does not contribute to salary, research support, or personal income. Brian G. Weinshenker receives payments for serving as chair of attack adjudication committees for clinical trials in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder for Alexion, MedImmune, UCB Bioscience, and Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics; has consulted with CANbridge Pharmaceuticals, Chugai, Genentech, Horizon Therapeutics, Mitsubishi Tanabe Pharma, and Roche Pharmaceuticals; has received payments for speaking for Genentech, Horizon Therapeutics, and Roche; and has a patent for NMO-IgG for diagnosis of neuromyelitis optica, with royalties paid by Hospices Civils de Lyon, MVZ Labor PD Dr. Volkmann und Kollegen GbR, RSR Limited, and the University of Oxford. W. Oliver Tobin has received grants from the National Institutes of Health, and book royalties from the publication of Mayo Clinic Cases in Neuroimmunology (Mayo Clinic Scientific Press) 2022. B. Mark Keegan served as a consultant to EMD Serono, is a member of the Center for Multiple Sclerosis and Autoimmune Research Mayo Clinic, receives publishing royalties for Common Pitfalls in Multiple Sclerosis and CNS Demyelinating Diseases, and is an Editorial Board member of Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders. Jan-Mendelt Tillema is an Associate Editor for Journal of Child Neurology. Burcu Zeydan reports funding from the NIH (NIA: U54 AG44170) and is supported by the Mayo Clinic Eugene and Marcia Applebaum Award.John J. Chen reports payment for consultation from UCB and Horizon. Massimo Filippi is the Editor-in-Chief of the Journal of Neurology, Associate Editor of Human Brain Mapping, Neurological Sciences, and Radiology; received compensation for consulting services from Alexion, Almirall, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Roche, and Sanofi; speaking activities from Bayer, Biogen, Celgene, Chiesi Italia SpA, Eli Lilly, Genzyme, Janssen, Merck Serono, Neopharmed Gentili, Novartis, Novo Nordisk, Roche, Sanofi, Takeda, and TEVA; participation in Advisory Boards for Alexion, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, Sanofi-Aventis, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Takeda; scientific direction of educational events for Biogen, Merck, Roche, Celgene, Bristol Myers Squibb, Lilly, Novartis, and Sanofi-Genzyme; and receives research support from Biogen Idec, Merck Serono, Novartis, Roche, the Italian Ministry of Health, the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and Fondazione Italiana Sclerosi Multipla. Maria Assunta Rocca received consulting fees from Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Eli Lilly, Janssen, and Roche; and speaker honoraria from AstraZaneca, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, Bromatech, Celgene, Genzyme, Horizon Therapeutics Italy, Merck Serono SpA, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, and Teva. She receives research support from the MS Society of Canada, the Italian Ministry of Health, the Italian Ministry of University and Research, and Fondazione Italiana Sclerosi Multipla. She is an Associate Editor for Multiple Sclerosis and Related Disorders. Orhun H. Kantarci reports no disclosures. Eoin P. Flanagan has served on advisory boards for Alexion, Genentech, and Horizon Therapeutics. He has received speaker honoraria from Pharmacy Times. He received royalties from UpToDate. Dr. Flanagan was a site primary investigator in a randomized clinical trial on Inebilizumab in neuromyelitis optica spectrum disorder run by MedImmune/Viela Bio/Horizon Therapeutics. Dr. Flanagan has received funding from the NIH (R01NS113828). Dr. Flanagan is a member of the medical advisory board of the MOG project. Dr. Flanagan is an editorial board member of the Journal of the Neurological Sciences and Neuroimmunology Reports. A patent has been submitted on DACH1-IgG as a biomarker of paraneoplastic autoimmunity.

: This study was approved by the Mayo Clinic and Olmsted Medical Center institutional review boards. Patients or their guardians consented to the use of their medical records for research purposes. This study conforms to the Declaration of Helsinki.