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Article History

Received: 25 July 2025

Revised: 22 September 2025

Accepted: 25 September 2025

First Online: 6 October 2025

Declarations

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: SK has served at scientific advisory boards, speaker, and/or as consultant for Roche, Eli Lilly, Geras Solutions, Optoceutics, Biogen, Eisai, Merry Life, Triolab, Novo Nordisk, and Bioarctic, unrelated to present study content.EJW reports consultancy/advisory board memberships with Alnylam, Annexon, Remix Therapeutics, Hoffman La Roche Ltd, Ionis Pharmaceuticals, PTC Therapeutics, Skyhawk Therapeutics, Takeda, Teitur Trophics, Triplet Therapeutics, Uniqure, Wave Life Sciences, and Vico Therapeutics. All honoraria for these consultancies were paid through the offices of UCL Consultants Ltd., a wholly owned subsidiary of University College London.KB has served as a consultant and at advisory boards for Abbvie, AC Immune, ALZPath, AriBio, Beckman-Coulter, BioArctic, Biogen, Eisai, Lilly, Moleac Pte. Ltd, Neurimmune, Novartis, Ono Pharma, Prothena, Quanterix, Roche Diagnostics, Sunbird Bio, Sanofi, and Siemens Healthineers; has served at data monitoring committees for Julius Clinical and Novartis; has given lectures, produced educational materials and participated in educational programs for AC Immune, Biogen, Celdara Medical, Eisai, and Roche Diagnostics; and is a co-founder of Brain Biomarker Solutions in Gothenburg AB (BBS), which is a part of the GU Ventures Incubator Program, outside the work presented in this paper.HZ has served at scientific advisory boards and/or as a consultant for Abbvie, Acumen, Alector, Alzinova, ALZpath, Amylyx, Annexon, Apellis, Artery Therapeutics, AZTherapies, Cognito Therapeutics, CogRx, Denali, Eisai, Enigma, LabCorp, Merck Sharp & Dohme, Merry Life, Nervgen, Novo Nordisk, Optoceutics, Passage Bio, Pinteon Therapeutics, Prothena, Quanterix, Red Abbey Labs, reMYND, Roche, Samumed, ScandiBio Therapeutics AB, Siemens Healthineers, Triplet Therapeutics, and Wave, has given lectures sponsored by Alzecure, BioArctic, Biogen, Cellectricon, Fujirebio, LabCorp, Lilly, Novo Nordisk, Oy Medix Biochemica AB, Roche, and WebMD, is a co-founder of Brain Biomarker Solutions in Gothenburg AB (BBS), which is a part of the GU Ventures Incubator Program, and is a shareholder of MicThera (outside submitted work).FJM, AD, IS, CL, GB, UA, and HK have no competing interests to declare that are relevant to the content of this article.

: All participants provided written informed consent at enrollment including consent to publication. In the Gothenburg cohort, the H70 Clinical Studies was approved by the Ethical Review Authority in Sweden (ID: 2019–04024) and the Gothenburg H70 Birth Cohort Study was approved by the Regional Ethical Review Board in Gothenburg, Sweden (ID: 869–13). In the UCL ION cohort, dementia participants provided informed written consent (ethical permit 12/LO/1504). Ethical approval for HD patients was granted by the London Camberwell St Giles Ethics Committee (ref: 186932), for MS patients by the Scotland A Research Ethics Committee (REC: 13/SS/0007), and for healthy controls by the Hampstead Ethics Committee (ref: 19/LO/0913). Animal use for antibody production was approved by the Gothenburg's Animal Experimentation Ethics Committee (ID: 003795). This study complies with the Declaration of Helsinki.