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Article History

Received: 15 January 2026

Revised: 25 January 2026

Accepted: 27 January 2026

First Online: 8 April 2026

Declarations

:

: S.J. reports no competing interests. K.R. received research support from German Ministry of Education and Research, European Union (821283–2), Stiftung Charité, Novartis, Merck Serono, Guthy-Jackson Charitable Foundation, and Arthur Arnstein Foundation and speaker’s honoraria from Virion Serion and Novartis; none related to this study. I.M. reports personal fees from Sanofi, BiogenIdec, Bayer Healthcare, TEVA, Serono, Novartis, Genzyme, Roche, and grants from BiogenIdec, Genzyme, Sanofi; none related to this study. F.B.K. reports no competing interests. J.H. reports no competing interests. W.B. reports no competing interests. F.P. reports research support from Bayer, Novartis, Biogen, Teva, Sanofi-Aventis/Genzyme, Alexion, and Merck Serono and research support from the German Research Council, Werth Stiftung of the City of Cologne, German Ministry of Education and Research, Arthur Arnstein Stiftung Berlin, EU FP7 Framework Program, Guthy-Jackson Charitable Foundation, and NMSS; he also reports consulting fees as an associate editor for Neurology, Neuroimmunology & Neuroinflammation and as an academic editor for PloS ONE and consultant fees for Sanofi Genzyme, Biogen, MedImmune, Shire, and Alexion; he also reports speaker honoraria from Bayer, Novartis, Biogen, Teva, Sanofi-Aventis/Genzyme, Merck Serono, Alexion, Chugai, MedImmune, and Shire; he is advisory board member for Novartis and MedImmune Scientific and hold stocks of Nocturne GmbH; all outside the submitted work. B.W. reported grants from the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, German Ministry of Education and Research, Baden-Württemberg Ministry for Science, Research and Art, Dietmar Hopp Foundation, Klaus Tschira Foundation, grants and personal fees from Merck and Novartis, and personal fees from Alexion, INSTAND e.V., Roche; none related to this study.

: All human studies have been approved by the appropriate ethics committee and have therefore been performed in accordance with the ethical standards laid down in the 1964 Declaration of Helsinki and its later amendments.