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Article History

Received: 3 November 2025

Revised: 30 January 2026

Accepted: 31 January 2026

First Online: 25 March 2026

Declarations

:

: X.M. has received speaking honoraria and travel expenses for participation in scientific meetings, has been a steering committee member of clinical trials or participated in advisory boards of clinical trials in the past years with Abbvie, Actelion, Alexion, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb/Celgene, EMD Serono, Genzyme, Hoffmann-La Roche, Immunic Therapeutics, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Medday, Merck, Mylan, Nervgen, Novartis, Sandoz, Sanofi-Genzyme, Teva Pharmaceutical, TG Therapeutics, Excemed, MSIF and NMSS. R.H. has received personal fees from Novartis, Sanofi, Merck, Biogen, Teva, Janssen/Johnson-Johnson, and Roche during the conduct of the study. C.P. has served on scientific advisory boards for Novartis, Merck, Biogen, Sanofi‐Genzyme, Roche, Janssen, Alexion, has received funding for travel and speaker honoraria from Merck, Serono, Biogen, Sanofi‐Genzyme, Roche, Almirall, Janssen, Alexion and Novartis, and receives research support from Merck, Biogen, Novartis and Almirall. M.S.F. has received research or educational grants from Sanofi-Genzyme Canada, has received honoraria or consultation fees from Alexion/Astra Zeneca, BiogenIdec, EMD Inc./EMD Serono/Merck Serono, Find Therapeutics, Hoffman-La Roche, Novartis, Quanterix, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Teva Canada Innovation, is a member of company advisory boards, boards of directors or similar for Alexion/Astra Zeneca, Atara Biotherapeutics, Bayer Healthcare, Celestra Health, EMD Inc./Merck Serono, Find Therapeutics, Hoffman-La Roche, Actelion/Janssen (J&J), Novartis, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Setpoint Medical, and has participated in a company-sponsored speaker’s bureau for EMD Serono and Sanofi-Genzyme. T.S.’s employer received compensation for speaking and advisory board/consulting activities from Actelion, Janssen, Eli Lilly, Merck-Serono, Roche, Novartis, Sandoz, Sanofi-Genzyme, and Teva. R.F. has served as a consultant or advisory board member in recent years for Arrowhead Pharmaceuticals, Astoria Biologica, Biogen, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Cognito, Eli Lilly, F. Hoffmann-La Roche, Galvani, Immunic, Inmune Bio, Innocare Pharma, Kiniksa, NGM Bio, Novartis, Pfizer, Population Council, Sanofi, Siemens, TG Therapeutics, Tr1X Inc, Ventus, and Viracta; has received clinical trial contracts awarded to his institution from Sanofi and Synaptogenix; has participated in data and safety monitoring for AB Science; and has been employed by Janssen Pharmaceuticals. E.K.H. received grants or contracts from Czech Ministry of Education—project Cooperatio LF1, research area Neuroscience and the project National Institute for Neurological Research (Programme EXCELES, ID project No LX22NPO5107), payment or honoraria for lectures, presentations, speakers bureaus, manuscript writing or educational events from Actelion (Janssen/J&J), Biogen, Celgene (BMS), Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi and Teva and for participation on a Data Safety Monitoring Board or Advisory Board from Actelion (Janssen/J&J), Biogen, Celgene (BMS), Merck, Novartis, Roche and Sanofi. F.L. received funding for research from Novartis, Actelion, Biogen, Sanofi, NMSS, NIH and Brainstorm Cell Therapeutics; consulting agreements/advisory boards/DSMB: Biogen, EMD Serono, Novartis, Teva, Actelion/Janssen, Sanofi/Genzyme, Acorda, Roche/Genentech, MedImmune/Viela Bio, Receptos/Celgene/BMS, TG Therapeutics, Medday, Atara Biotherapeutics, Mapi Pharma, Apitope, Orion Biotechnology, Brainstorm Cell Therapeutics, Jazz Pharmaceuticals, GW Pharma, Mylan, Immunic, Population Council, Avotres, Neurogene, Banner Life Sciences, Labcorp, Entelexo Biotherapeutics and NeuraLight; stock options: Avotres and NeuraLight; Speaker: Sanofi (non-promotional). D.N., N.R., J.W., A.V., J.D., P.L., M.B. are employees of Actelion Pharmaceuticals, a Janssen Pharmaceutical company of Johnson & Johnson and may hold stock in Johnson & Johnson. LK received research support to the institution (University Hospital Basel, Basel, Switzerland) including steering committee, advisory board, and consultancy fees from Actelion (Janssen), Bayer, Biogen, Bristol Myers Squibb, GSK, Janssen, Japan Tobacco, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Sanofi, Santhera, and Shionogi, and TG Therapeutics; speaker fees from Bayer, Biogen, Merck, Novartis, Roche, and Sanofi; support of educational activities from Allergan, Bayer, Biogen, CSL Behring, Desitin, Merck, Novartis, Pfizer, Roche, Sanofi, Shire, and Teva; license fees for Neurostatus platform access; and grants from Bayer, Biogen, EU, InnoSwiss, Merck, Novartis, Roche, Swiss Multiple Sclerosis Society, and Swiss National Research Foundation.

: This retrospective database analysis study did not involve any collection, transmission, or use of participants' identifiable data. An institutional review board (US) or independent ethics committee (Europe) approved the study protocol and amendments at each participating center. The study was conducted under the ethical principles of the Declaration of Helsinki and was consistent with the local Ethical Guidelines for Medical and Biological Research Involving Human participants.