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Article History

Received: 29 January 2026

Revised: 29 April 2026

Accepted: 13 May 2026

First Online: 2 June 2026

Declarations

:

: M.D.A. Bet: nothing to disclose. B. Helmlinger received speaker honoraria from Roche, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Sanofi, and travel funding from Janssen. S.M.C. Hechenberger received speaking honoraria from Roche, Bristol-Myers Squibb, and Merck. T.A.A. Broeders received research support from Dutch MS Research Foundation. C.G. Tinauer: nothing to disclose. S. Ropele: nothing to disclose. F. Barkhof serves on the steering committee and is an iDMC member for Biogen, Merck, Roche, EISAI, acts as a consultant for Roche, Biogen, Merck, IXICO, Jansen, Combinostics, has research agreements with Novartis, Merck, Biogen, GE, Roche and is co-founder and shareholder of Queen Square Analytics LTD. M. Khalil received travel funding and speaker honoraria from Bayer, Novartis, Merck, Biogen, Sanofi and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd. and serves on scientific advisory boards for Biogen, Merck, Roche, Novartis, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Gilead. He received research grants from Teva Pharmaceutical Industries, Ltd., Biogen and Novartis. C. Enzinger received travel funding and speaker honoraria from Biogen Idec, Bayer Schering Pharma, Merck Serono, Novartis, Genzyme and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd./Sanofi-Aventis, Shire; received research support from Merck Serono, Biogen Idec, and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd./Sanofi-Aventis; and serves on scientific advisory boards for Bayer Schering Pharma, Biogen Idec, Merck Serono, Novartis, Genzyme, Roche, and Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd./Sanofi-Aventis. L. Douw is supported by the Dutch Research Council (NWO, Vidi 198.015). M.M. Schoonheim serves on the editorial board of Neurology, Multiple Sclerosis Journal and Frontiers in Neurology, receives research support from the Dutch MS Research Foundation, Eurostars-EUREKA, ARSEP, Amsterdam Neuroscience and ZonMW (Vidi grant, project number 09150172010056) and has served as a consultant for or received research support from Atara Biotherapeutics, Biogen, Celgene/Bristol Meyers Squibb, EIP, Sanofi, MedDay and Merck. D.T. Pinter is a member of the advisory board for "Cognition and MS" for Novartis and received speaking honoraria from Biogen, Novartis, MedAhead and Bristol-Meyers Squibb. The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

: This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki. Study procedures were approved by the ethical review board of the Medical University of Graz (31–432 ex 18/19 1264–2019). All participants provided written informed consent prior to inclusion.

: Not applicable.