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Article History

Received: 27 August 2025

Revised: 6 November 2025

Accepted: 10 December 2025

First Online: 29 December 2025

Declarations

:

: Because of the retrospective and deidentified nature of the data collection, waiver of informed consent was granted.

: This study included retrospectively data that was collected in a de-identified fashion in accordance with HIPAA standards. Each respective institution providing data obtained appropriate approvals from their institutional review boards.

: The following financial disclosures are provided for each of the co-authors:SRS: Consultant: Boerhinger Ingelheim, Roche, Optos, Topcon, Zeiss, Ikerian, 4DMT, Abbvie, Alexion, Allergan Inc., Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Amgen Inc., Apellis Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Astellas, Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceuticals, Biogen MA Inc., Catalyst Pharmaceuticals Inc., Centervue Inc., GENENTECH, Gyroscope Therapeutics, Heidelberg Engineering, Iveric Bio, iCare, Janssen Pharmaceuticals Inc., Nanoscope, Notal Vision Inc., Novartis Pharma AG, Oxurion/Thrombogenics, Oyster Point Pharma, Regeneron Pharmaceuticals Inc., Samsung Bioepis, Topcon Medical Systems Inc. Research instruments from: Carl Zeiss Meditec, Heidelberg Engineering, Nidek Incorporated, Novartis Pharma AG, Topcon Medical Systems Inc.CCW: Consultant: 4DMT, AbbVie, ADARx, Adverum, Alcon, Alimera, Alkeus, Annexon, Apellis, Aviceda, Bausch + Lomb, Bayer, Biocryst, Boehringer Ingelheim, Chengdu Kanghong, Curacle, EyeBiotech, EyePoint, Genentech, InGel, Janssen, Kiora, Kodiak, Nanonscope, Neurotech, Novartis, Oak Bay Bio, Ocular Therapeutix, Ollin, ONL, Opthea, Opus, Osanni, Perceive Bio, Perfuse, Regeneron, RegenXBio, RetinAI, Roche, Sanofi, Santen, Skyline, Stealth, Sylentis, Visgenx, Vitranu, Zeiss. Recipient: 4DMT, AbbVie, Adverum, Alexion, Alimera, Allgenesis, Annexon, Apellis, Ascidian, Astellas, Aviceda, Bayer, Boehringer Ingelheim, Clearside, Curacle, EyeBiotech, EyePoint, Genentech, Janssen, Kodiak, Nanoscope, Neurotech, Novartis, Ocular Therapeutix, Opthea, Perceive Bio, Regeneron, RegenXBio, Roche, Skyline, Stealth. SO: InGel, Ollin, ONL, Osanni, Perceive Bio, Visgenx.IC: Stock and stock options: Sensinject, Orsight Pharma. Consultant: Remepy, Tarsier Pharma, Ocutrack, Roche, Xoltar.JFK: Consultant: Abbvie, Adverum, Apellis, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Eyepoint Pharma, Ocular Therapeutix, Roche, SeaBeLife, Thea, Carl Zeiss Meditec. Member of DSMB: Alexion, Novonordisk and Opthea.FGH: Grants: Acucela, Allergan, Apellis, Bayer, Belite Bio, Bioeq, Centervue, Geuder, Roche/Genentech, Heidelberg Engineering, IvericBio/Astellas, NightStarx, Novartis, Optos, Science, Zeiss. Consultant: Acucela, Alcon, Alexion, Alzheon, Apellis, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Genentech/Roche, Grayburg Vision, Heidelberg Engineering, IvericBio/Astellas, Lin Bioscience, Janssen, Novartis, Oculis, Opthea, Oxurion, Science, Stealth Biotherapeutics, Zeiss.RHG: Advisory boards: Apellis, Roche/Genentech, Bayer, Novartis, Regeneron, Zeiss. Research Support: Adverum, Apellis, Astellas, Aviceda, Biogen, Belite Bio, Boehringer Ingelheim, Genentech, Lineage Cell Therapeutics, ONL Therapeutics, Regeneron, Regenexbio, SpliceBio, 4DMT Pharmaceuticals, Character Bioscience, Janssen, AbbVie, Astellas, RetinAI, Sitala, Kriya, Ocular Therapeutix, Complement therapeutics, Pulse sight, i2vision.HGN: Employee of Boehringer Ingelheim, Clearside Biomedical, Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, Biberach, Germany.NH: Employee: F. Hoffmann LaRoche, Basel Switzerland. Stock and Stock options: Roche, Notal Vision, Nacuity.CMGC: Grants: Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Roche, Zeiss. Consulting fee: Astellas, Bayer, Boehringer-Ingelheim, Janssen, Roche/Genentech, Novartis, Opthea, Topcon, Zeiss, 4DMT.DSB: 4DT: AdArx: Adverum Biotechnologies: Aerpio: Alcon Laboratories, Inc.: Alkahest: Alkeus: Allergan, Inc: Allegro: Allgenesis: Amgen Inc: Annexon: Apellis Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: AsclepiX Therapeutics: AshvatthaBausch + Lomb: Bayer Healthcare Pharmaceuticals: Biogen International Gmbh: BioMotiv: BioTime Inc.: Boehringer Ingelheim: : Chengdu Kanghong Biotec: Clearside Biomedical, Inc.: Duet: EyePoint Pharmaceuticals: Galimedix Therapeutics, Inc.: GENENTECH: GenSight Biologics: Glaukos Corporation: Iconic Therapeutics Inc: InflammX: Consultant/Advisor, Stock Options: Interface Biologics, Inc.Ionis: Iveric Bio: Jcyte: Kala Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: Lumithera: Nanoscope: Consultant/Advisor Neurotech USA: NGM: NGM : Notal Vision, Inc.: Novartis Pharma AG: Novartis Pharmaceuticals: :Ocugen, Inc: Consultant/Advisor, Stock Options: Ocular Therapeutix:, Grant Support Ocuphire Pharma Inc: Opthea: Optos, Inc.: Consultant/Advisor Ora, Inc: Oxurion: Ray Vision, Inc.: RecensMedical Inc: Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc.: REGENXBIO: Regulus Therapeutics: Sanofi:LLC: Consultant/Advisor Santen, Inc: Semathera: Smilebiotek: Stealth Biotherapeutics: Sun Pharmaceutical Industries: THEA: Unity:MI: Consulting: Alimera, Allergan, Amgen, Apellis, Astellas.CC, SA, SDZ, JB, NJ: Employees: Ikerian AG; Stock and Stock options: Ikerian AGAY: Consultant (personal fees): Genentech, Johnson and Johnson, Apellis, Boehringer Ingelheim, Gyroscope. Grant support from Santen, Topcon, Carl Zeiss Meditec, Amazon, Regeneron, Meta. Non-financial support from iCareWorld, Optomed, Heidelberg, Microsoft.