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Article History

Received: 27 October 2025

Accepted: 22 February 2026

First Online: 6 March 2026

Change Date: 12 March 2026

Change Type: Update

Change Details: Article note updated.

Declarations

:

: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

: This study addresses a critical knowledge gap by experimentally testing how multiple mechanisms—species identity, diversity, functional groups, and trait similarity—jointly determine invasion resistance during the understudied co-establishment phase when native and invasive species colonize simultaneously. Our comprehensive two-year greenhouse experiment challenges the widely assumed limiting similarity hypothesis by demonstrating that trait similarity does not predict competitive suppression while revealing that species identity and functional group membership are the primary drivers of biotic resistance. These findings provide evidence-based guidance for restoration practitioners, specifically recommending fast-growing annual and perennial herbs over woody species to maximize early competitive suppression of invasive plants.