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Authors
Cheng, Chuwei
Chen, Yu
Hu, Tianle
Deng, Qiyu
Chan, Sixian
Fang, Xiaozhao
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065)
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065)
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Article History
Received: 4 March 2025
Accepted: 30 August 2025
First Online: 10 October 2025
Declarations
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: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
: This paper strictly abides by the moral standards of this journal. The study uses only publicly available benchmark datasets (MNIST-USPS, COIL20, Office-31 and Office-Home). No human subjects were involved. Ethical approval was not required per institutional guidelines for computational studies using public datasets.
: Informed consent is not applicable as no personal data was collected.
