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Authors
Cheng, Chuwei
Chen, Yu
Hu, Tianle
Deng, Qiyu
Chan, Sixian
Fang, Xiaozhao
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Natural Science Foundation of China (No.62176065, No.62176065, No.62176065, No.62176065, No.62176065, No.62176065)
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Article History
Received: 4 March 2025
Accepted: 30 August 2025
First Online: 10 October 2025
Declarations
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: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.
: This paper strictly abides by the moral standards of this journal. The study uses only publicly available benchmark datasets (MNIST-USPS, COIL20, Office-31 and Office-Home). No human subjects were involved. Ethical approval was not required per institutional guidelines for computational studies using public datasets.
: Informed consent is not applicable as no personal data was collected.
