Document is current

Article History

Received: 9 October 2025

Revised: 20 January 2026

Accepted: 7 February 2026

First Online: 14 February 2026

Compliance with ethical standards

:

: Ethical approval for all the English Longitudinal Study of Ageing waves was granted from NHS Research Ethics Committees under the National Research and Ethics Service (NRES). The Health and Retirement Study (HRS) was approved by the Institutional Review Board at the University of Michigan. The National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES) obtained ethical approval from the NCHS Research Ethics Review Board (Protocol #2011–17), and the China Health and Retirement Longitudinal Study (CHARLS) was approved by the Peking University Ethics Review Committee. All procedures in these studies complied with the ethical standards of the responsible institutional and national committees and with the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki. Informed consent was obtained from all participants.

: None.