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Authors
Noordenbos, Jori https://orcid.org/0009-0001-0537-8382
Beerda, Bonne https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6776-1969
Layzell, Hannah
Kaminski, Juliane https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3437-3484
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Article History
Received: 15 July 2025
Revised: 25 November 2025
Accepted: 1 December 2025
First Online: 12 December 2025
Declarations
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: The authors declare no competing interests.
: All the procedures were in accordance with the standards of the UK Animals (Scientific Procedures) Act 1986. The study received ethical approval from Animal Welfare and Ethical Review Body (AWERB), University of Portsmouth (Reference number724F), and complies with the “Guidelines for the Treatment of Animals in Behavioural Research and Teaching” of the Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour (ASAB).
: All participating dog owners were informed about the experimental procedures beforehand and consented.
