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Article History

Received: 6 April 2026

Accepted: 17 June 2026

First Online: 23 July 2026

Declarations

Conflict of interest: LW received honoraria from Amgen, AstraZeneca, BMS, Daiichi-Sankyo, Merck, MSD, Novocure, Pierre Fabre, Servier, Takeda, received consulting or advisory role fees from Amgen, Astellas, BMS, GSK, Incyte, Lilly, Merck, MSD, Novocure, Pierre Fabre, Roche, travel support from AstraZeneca, Daiichi-Sankyo, IPSEN, Janssen, Merck, Pierre Fabre, Roche, Servier and has stock and other ownership interests: Guardant Health; EW received honoraria for lectures, consultation or advisory board participation from the following for-profit companies: Amgen, Astella Pharma, Astra Zeneca, BMS, Celgen, Daiichi Sankyo, Ebewe, Eisai, Eli Lilly, Elsevier, Gilead, GSK, Janssen Cilag, Johnson&Johnson, Jazz Pharma, Merck, MSD, Novartis, Pierre Fabre, Pfizer, Ratiopharm, Roche, Sanofi Aventis, Servier, Stemline, Takeda; LÖ received honoraria or advisory role fees from Amgen, Astra Zeneca, BMS, Daiichi Sankyo, Eisai, Gilead, GSK, Janssen Cilag, Johnson&Johnson, Merck, Novartis, Pierre Fabre, Pfizer, Roche, Sanofi Aventis, Servier; JMB received travel support from Amgen via institutional nomination and honoraria for lectures, consultation or advisory board participation from MSD; ESB received travel support from Daiichi Sankyo and Jazz Pharmaceuticals via institutional nomination and honoraria for lectures, consultation or advisory board participation from Servier and Merck.; GWP has to declare: advisory board meetings/symposia fees: Merck Serono, BMS, Roche, Amgen, Sanofi, Lilly, Servier, Taiho, Bayer, Halozyme, MSD, Celgene, Pierre Fabre, Incyte, Arcus, Revolution Medicines, Abbvie, Takeda, JazzPharma.; ASB has research support from Daiichi Sankyo, Roche and honoraria for lectures, consultation or advisory board participation from Roche Bristol-Meyers Squibb, Merck, Daiichi Sankyo, AstraZeneca, CeCaVa, Seagen, Alexion, Servier, Pfizer, Ygion as well as travel support from Roche, Gilead, Amgen and AbbVie.; MP received honoraria for lectures, consultation or advisory board participation from the following for-profit companies: Bayer, Bristol-Myers Squibb, Novartis, Gerson Lehrman Group (GLG), CMC Contrast, GlaxoSmithKline, Mundipharma, Roche, BMJ Journals, MedMedia, Astra Zeneca, AbbVie, Lilly, Medahead, Daiichi Sankyo, Sanofi, Merck Sharp & Dome, Tocagen, Adastra, Gan & Lee Pharmaceuticals, Janssen, Servier, Miltenyi, Böhringer-Ingelheim, Telix, Medscape, OncLive, Medac, Nerviano Medical Sciences, ITM Oncologics GmbH, AdAcAp, Crinetics.; HCP received travel support from Eli Lilly, MSD, Novartis, Pfizer, PharmaMar and Roche and received lecture honoraria from Eli Lilly.; FH received honoraria from Lilly, Pierre Fabre, Amgen, Servier, Daiichi Sankyo, BMS, Merck, Sanofi, Roche, Janssen, PharmaMar, Astellas, Johnson & Johnson, AstraZeneca, BeOne; and travel support from Servier, BMS, Roche, Merck, Pharmamar, Pfizer, Pierre Fabre, Sanofi, Daiichi Sankyo, Gilead, Jazz Pharmaceuticals.; AIM participated in advisory boards by MSD, Servier, Daiichi Sankyo, BMS, Amgen and Astellas, lecture honoraria from Eli Lilly, Servier, BMS, MSD, Astellas, Astra Zeneca, BeiGene, Amgen, Merck and Daiichi Sankyo, received consulting fees fromm Astellas, MSD, Amgen, Astra Zeneca, BeiGene, and Roche, and travel support (all via institutional nomination) from BMS, Roche, Eli Lilly, Daiichi Sankyo, Jazz and BeiGene.; All other co-authors declare no conflict of interest.

Informed consent: Due to the retrospective design no explicit informed consent was necessary for this study. This is in accordance with local ethical standards and was approved by the ethics committee of each institution, as stated above.

Institutional review board statement: All procedures were in accordance with the ethical standards of the responsible committee and with the Helsinki Declaration of 1964 and later versions. The study was approved by the ethics committee of each participating institution: Medical University of Vienna (reference number: 1688/2025); Department of Internal Medicine III with Haematology, Medical Oncology, Haemostaseology, Infectiology and Rheumatology, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria (reference number: 1132/2025); Department of Internal Medicine, Krankenhaus St. Vinzenz Zams (reference number 1353/2025); 1st Department of Internal Medicine / Oncology at St. Josef Hospital (reference number: 1047/2025). The risk of publication of sensitive patient data was minimized by restrictions of data accession and pseudonymized statistical analysis.

Statement on the use of artificial intelligence: Artificial intelligence (AI)-based tools were used to support specific components of this study. ChatGPT (OpenAI, GPT-5) was utilized to assist with R programming for statistical analyses, data visualization, and figure generation. All aspects of conceptualization, study design, data interpretation, and critical reasoning were performed by the authors. All AI-assisted outputs were thoroughly reviewed, verified, and edited by the authors, who take full responsibility for the accuracy and integrity of the final manuscript.