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Authors
Huang, Mengying https://orcid.org/0009-0004-4954-6538
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Article History
Received: 7 November 2025
Revised: 26 February 2026
Accepted: 31 March 2026
First Online: 30 April 2026
Declarations
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: This study is based entirely on secondary analysis of publicly available data from the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022, conducted by the OECD. All data are anonymised. No additional ethical approval was required.
: Not applicable.
: The author declares no competing interests.
