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Article History

Received: 13 January 2025

Revised: 19 May 2025

Accepted: 20 May 2025

First Online: 2 June 2025

Declarations

:

: This study used the MIMIC dataset, which is publicly available and fully de-identified. In accordance with the University of Hong Kong’s guidelines, no ethical approval was required for this research.

: Since the study relied on the de-identified and anonymized data from the MIMIC dataset, informed consent was not necessary according to the guidelines governing the secondary use of publicly available datasets.

: The chest radiographs analyzed in this study were sourced from the publicly available and de-identified MIMIC dataset, as cited in []. In line with the dataset’s usage policy, all data were anonymized to ensure participant confidentiality and adherence to ethical standards.

: The authors declare no competing interests.