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Authors
Wu, Anthony Taolun https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0250-067X
Amirhekmat, Arya
Choi, Nathan H.
Golshan-Momeni, Maryam
Khosravi, Pooya
Liang, Jason
Birring, Paramveer S.
Houshyar, Roozbeh
Xie, Xiaohui
Learned, James
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
National Institute of General Medical Sciences (T32GM154637)
National Eye Institute (F30EY036725)
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Article History
Received: 5 November 2025
Revised: 2 February 2026
Accepted: 22 February 2026
First Online: 23 March 2026
Declarations
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: Training data were obtained from the Center for Artificial Intelligence in Medicine & Imaging at Stanford. According to the data use agreement, the data were fully anonymized prior to our access. Ethical approval and informed consent were handled by the data providers. External validation data was obtained from the University of California, Irvine School of Medicine. This retrospective study was approved by the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of University of California, Irvine School of Medicine (Protocol #20184532). The requirement for informed consent was waived by the IRB due to the retrospective nature of the study and the use of anonymized data.
: The authors have no relevant financial or non-financial interests to disclose.
