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Article History

Received: 19 October 2025

Accepted: 27 August 2026

First Online: 9 September 2026

Declarations

Ethics approval and consent to participate: This study did not involve human participants or identifiable personal data. It was conducted entirely using publicly available, fully anonymized secondary data from the World Bank and International Monetary Fund Open Data platform ( and ). As such, ethical approval was not required. The authors affirm that the study complies with institutional and national research ethics standards and adheres to the principles of the Declaration of Helsinki (2013 revision).

Informed consent: The study did not involve human participants or the collection of personal data; therefore, informed consent was not required. All data used were fully anonymized and obtained from publicly available sources, in accordance with ethical standards for the use of open-access data.

Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests.

Original submission statement: The manuscript has not been previously published in its current form or a substantially similar form and is not currently under review by another journal.