Document is current
Any future updates will be listed below
-
Authors
Smith, Thomas J.
Lu, Ying-Yan https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9045-0907
- License Information
-
More Information
Article History
Received: 25 July 2025
Accepted: 2 February 2026
First Online: 10 March 2026
Declarations
:
: This research involved secondary analysis of publicly available, de-identified data from the OECD Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) 2022 and was therefore exempt from institutional review board approval.
: The authors declare that there are no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.
