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Authors
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Funding
Funding for this research was provided by:
Institute for Research Excellence in Learning Sciences, National Taiwan Normal University (113-2423-H-003-004)
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Article History
Received: 10 March 2025
Accepted: 24 June 2026
First Online: 1 July 2026
Declarations
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: The authors declare that they haveno competing interests.
: This study utilized paper-and-pencil and computer-based tests and collected participants’ grade levels and test responses. No personally identifiable information was collected. According to the regulations of National Taiwan Normal University, this study is considered low-risk research and does not require ethical approval.
