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Article History

Received: 10 June 2025

Accepted: 17 October 2025

First Online: 30 October 2025

Declarations

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: This research was conducted in accordance with ethical guidelines for telecommunications research. The study involved analysis of anonymized network traffic data and did not require human subject approval. All data collection and analysis procedures followed institutional ethical guidelines and relevant data protection regulations including GDPR compliance. The research utilized publicly available datasets (MONROE) and anonymized network measurements that do not contain personally identifiable information. No individual consent was required as the study did not involve direct human participation or collection of personal data.

: All authors consent to the publication of this research work. The research does not contain any individual person’s data requiring specific consent for publication. All co-authors have reviewed and approved the final manuscript for submission.

: The authors declare no competing interests.